References

References

1.      Perreault, S. & Brennan, S. (2009) Criminal Victimization in Canada, Juristat, Vol. 30, No 2. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2010 (Cat. No. 85-002-X).

2.      Stark, E. (2007). Coercive Control: How Men Entrap Women in Personal Life. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.

3. Trocmé, N., & National Clearinghouse on Family Violence. (2010). Canadian incidence study of reported child abuse and neglect, 2008: Major findings. Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada.
4. Health Canada. (1996). Wife Abuse—The Impact on Children. Fact sheet. Prepared by the London Family Court Clinic. Ottawa: National Clearinghouse on Family Violence
5. Berman, H. J., Hardesty, & Humphreys, J. (2004). Children of abused women. In Humphreys, J. and J. Campbell (eds.) Family Violence and Nursing Practice. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, p. 150-185.
6. Cunningham, A., & Baker, L. (2004). What About Me! Seeking to Understand a Child's View of Violence in the Family. Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada: Centre for Children & Families in the Justice System. Retrieved from www.lfcc.on.ca/what_about_me.html
7. Straus, M. A. (1990). The national family violence surveys. In M. A. Straus & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to Violence in 18,145 families (pp. 3-16). New Brunswick: Transaction Publications.

8.      Johnson, H., & Statistics Canada. (2006). Measuring violence against women statistical trends. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.

9. Kalmuss, D. S. (1984). The intergenerational transmission of marital aggression. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 11-19.
10. Landis, T. (1989). Children in shelters: an exploration of dissociative processes and traumatisation in some children. Boulder: University of Colorado.
11. Lehmann, P. (1997). The development of PTSD in a sample of child witnesses to mother assault. Journal of Family Violence, 12(3), 241-257.
12. MacMillan, H., & National Clearinghouse on Family Violence (Canada). (2006). Child Maltreatment: A "What to Do" Guide for Professionals Who Work With Children. [Ottawa]: National Clearinghouse on Family Violence.

13.  Geffner, R., Jaffe, P., & Sudermann, M. (2000). Children exposed to domestic violence: Current issues in research, intervention, prevention, and policy development. New York: Haworth Maltreatment & Trauma Press.

14.  Hunnicutt, G. (2009). Varities of patriarchy and violence against women: resurrecting "patriarchy" as a theroetical tool. Violence Against Women , 15 (5), 553-573.

15. Government of Canada. (2012). Budget 2012. Retrieved from http://www.budget.gc.ca/2012/splash.html
16. CBC News. (2012a, April 19). AFN lays off staff after losing health funding. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2012/04/19/pol-afn-health-funding-cut.html
17. Mental Health Commission of Canada. (2012). Mental Health Strategy for Canada. Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/Pages/Strategy.aspx

18.  Lurie, S. (2008, November 26). Breakdown: Canada's mental health crisis My list: 10 things to do improve mental health care in Canada. Retrieved from The Globe and Mail: http://v1.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20081126.wmhlurie1126/BNStory/mentalhealth

19. Service Canada. (n.d.-d). Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC) Program. Retrieved from http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/goc/linc.shtml/
20. Parliament of Canda. (2011, June 2). House Government Bill C-31. Retrieved from http://www.parl.gc.ca/LegisInfo/BillDetails.aspx?billId=5383493&Mode=1&View=7&Language=E
21. CBC News. (2012b, June 18). Doctors protest “disastrous” cuts to refugee health. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2012/06/18/pol-cp-refugee-health-cuts-doctors.html
22. Canadian Council for Refugees. (n.d.). Protect Refugees from Bill C-31: Joint statement. Retrieved from http://ccrweb.ca/en/protect-refugees-c31-statement
23. Department of Finance Canada. (n.d.). Canada Health Transfer. Retrieved from http://www.fin.gc.ca/fedprov/cht-eng.asp
24. Service Canada. (n.d.-c). For People with Disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/audiences/disabilities/index.shtml
25. Service Canada. (n.d.-b). For Families and Children. Retrieved from http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/audiences/families/index.shtml
26. Service Canada. (n.d.-e). Old Age Security Pension. Retrieved from http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/sc/oas/pension/oldagesecurity.shtml

27.   Service Canada. (n.d.-a). Canada Pension Plan Retirement. Retrieved from http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/video/cpp-rpc.shtml

28.  Service Canada. (n.d.). RC66 - Canada Child Benefits Application. Retrieved from

http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/E/pbg/tf/rc66/README.html

29. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. (n.d.). Shelter Enhancement Program | CMHC. Retrieved from http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/co/prfinas/prfinas_011.cfm

30.  Burczycka, M., & Cotter, A. (2011). Shelters for abused women in Canada, 2010. Juristat . Statistics Canada. Retrieved 06 26, 2012, from Statistics Canada: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2011001/article/11495-eng.htm

31.  Shelters and rural and aboriginal – nancy to get

32.  Blackstock, C., Trocmé, N., & Bennett, M. (2004). Child maltreatment investigations among Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal families in Canada. Violence Against Women , 10 (8), 901-916.

33.  Barrett, B. J., St. Pierre, M., & Vaillancourt, N. (2011). Police response to intimate partner violence in Canada: Do victim characteristics matter? Women & Criminal Justice, 21, 38-62.

34.  Griffiths, C. T., & Hatch Cunningham, A. (2002). Canadian Criminal Justice A Primer (2nd ed.). Scarborough, ON: Thomson Nelson Canada Limited.

35.  Balfour, G. (2008). Falling between the cracks of retributive and restorative justice: the victimization and punishment of Aboriginal women. Feminist Criminology, 3 (2), 101-120.

36.  Todd, R. (2011). Domestic violence court opens. Retrieved from Law Times: http://www.lawtimesnews.com/201106208513/Headline-News/Domestic-violence-court-opens

37.  Criminal Code, R.S. c. C-46 (1985). Retrieved from http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/C-46/index.html

38.  Department of Justice Canada. (2000). Research Report - The Ontario Rural Woman Abuse Study (ORWAS): Final Report.

Canada's Reactive Approaches to VIolence Against Women

The federal government funds programs and services through transfers, grants and non-governmental agencies. To the extent possible, the current federal government favours reactive responses to social problems. The service levels and funding structures in Canada result in complex systems to navigate. For example, regional boundaries may be different between social, health, policing and legal services. Beyond this, rural life in Canada includes limited availability of some such services because services are often centralized in an urban centre (Martz & Saraurer, 2003).

Shelters                                                

-         The federal government funds, in part, the development of shelters through the Canadian Mortgage Housing Corporation.

-          In 2010, 64,500 women were admitted to a shelter, 74% of whom brought their children (Burczycka & Cotter, 2011).

-         Ideological changes at the government level have resulted in decreased funding (Morrow, Hankivsky, & Varcoe, 2004)

-         In smaller communities, including rural and First Nation communities, shelters are limited and may be ineffective due to challenges of anonymity, culture and capacity.

-         Full-capacity is the most common reason women are turned away from a shelter (Burczycka & Cotter, 2011).

Hotlines

-          Hotlines are established in most provinces; funding sources vary between provinces

-          Services are available in French and English as well as several other languages in large centres

Child Welfare System

·         The mainstream child welfare system is managed provincially in Canada.

·          Aboriginal child welfare services are federally funded and are underfunded in comparison to others.

·         Aboriginal children are overrepresented among children removed from their homes by the agencies (Blackstock, Trocme & Bennett, 2004).

·         Child welfare agencies function independently resulting in widespread inconsistency of service. Although exposure to intimate partner violence is the most substantiated protection concern, this type of file is closed in 64% of cases (Blackstock, Trocme & Bennett, 2004).

Policing

·         Only one-third of women contact the police to report abuse; this is less than informal supports, counsellors or medical professionals (Barrett, St. Pierre & Vallaincourt, 2011).

·         Reasons to avoid police involvement: the criminal justice system cannot help, the incident was too minor, fear of retaliation and shame

·         Some women did not contact police due to a fear of racism, distrust of the institution, language barriers, cultural-insensitivity and barriers relating to disabilities. Many of these fears have been substantiated in practice.

Mandatory Charging and Domestic Violence Courts

·         A Mandatory charging policy was introduced in the early 1980s to minimize police discretion and remove the onus from the victim.

·         DV Courts were introduced in 1996 and vary provincially. Their focus is on early intervention and aggressive prosecution. As of 2009 there were DV courts established in seven provinces as well as at least on integrated domestic violence court (Todd, R.)

·         The results of the well-intended policy shift included:

o   Disempowerment, fear and possible increased risk to victim

o   Criminal charges of breach of justice against victims who refuse to testify (Griffiths & Hatch Cunningham, 2002)

o   Counter-charging against victims who were practising self-defense, especially female, Aboriginal, rural women (Balfour, 2008)

Laws and Policies

·         The Criminal Code of Canada prohibits violence, harassment, forcible confinement and other activities associated with violence against women.

o   VAW is not in the criminal code; instead the justice system relies on other offences

o   Violence against a spouse or child is considered to be an aggravating factor for sentencing purposes

o   There are testimonial aids to help to protect vulnerable victims

o   Some regions have provincial-level legislation relating to family violence. Provisions therein may include granting exclusive use of the home to the victim, monetary compensation for the victim, and no communication clauses (Department of Justice Canada, 2011)

Informal Support Seeking

·         Victims have reported that they seek help most often from informal supports (Barrett, St. Pierre, & Vaillancourt, 2011).

·         This highlights the importance of proactive measures and calls attention to the avoidance of formal services.

Canada's Proactive Approaches to Violence Against Women

Proactive Fight to VAW

Canada’s reactive approaches have resulted in disempowerment and further marginalization of victims. Given that informal support is the most common help-seeking behaviour and that the responses of child welfare, police and court responses have been inconsistent and problematic, prevention-focussed approaches are paramount and perhaps the sole way to create social change. Canada’s current government’s fiscally and socially conservative priorities have served to undermine the welfare state established by previous, socially liberal governments. The 2012 budget has resulted in widespread, national cutbacks. However, a reflection of the lack of transparency of this government, it is difficult to ascertain which programs and services have been impacted. In addition, many programs are provincially managed and as such, difficult to summarize below.

*The following provides examples of federal funding as it relates to risk factors of VAW; this is not a comprehensive review of all federal funding.

Risk Factor: Aboriginal

-          Canada has a long history and continuing pattern of isolating, discriminating against and mistreating First Nations, Inuit and Métis people, who represent 4% of the Canadian population. 

-          Those who live on-reserve disproportionately experience sub-standard living conditions compared to other Canadians, including no running water or heat and unsafe food/water sources

-          The current Canadian government cut several programs which support First Nations, Inuit and Métis persons, and especially women. This included at least three national level organizations and accounted for millions of dollars, ending entire programs or the organization itself.

-          Despite these cuts, the budget states that it is supporting mental health and well-being for Aboriginals (www.budget.gc.ca)

-          The Family Violence Prevention Program funded by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada and Public Health Agency of Canada provide health promotion and support services relating to IPV (www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca)

Mental Health

-          Mental Health is considered to be a priority by the current Canadian government. Funds are directed to particular streams of mental health and is insufficient to address the complexities of mental illness for Canadians.  Healthcare is a provincial responsibility and as such program delivery and funding vary between regions and is beyond the scope of the present analysis.

o   $130 million in 2008 and $110 million in 2012 were granted for mental health research and homelessness respectively

o   In 2012 the Mental Health Strategy was released, planning improvements to mental health care in Canada

o   Mental Health Promotion is funded by Public Health Agency of Canada (www.phac.gc.ca)

o   Canada spends relatively little on mental health care compared to other OECD nations; only 5% of the health budget is directed towards mental health (Lurie, 2008).

o   Budget cuts to National Defence have resulted in cuts to research relating to mental health in the military

o   Women’s representation in the mental health field is poor; research by women receives only 6.05% of all mental health research funds and only 0.42% of all health research funds (http://www.cmha.ca/public-policy/)

o   The mental health of new Canadians is a crucial consideration and has been found to deteriorate over time due to their poor treatment and opportunities in Canada (Lurie, 2008)

Immigrant/Refugee

-          Immigration Canada funds LINC, a language program and the Settlement Program – each of these include a small focus on domestic violence and human rights.

-          Cuts in health care for refugees.

o   Urgent, essential or public health risks only treated (http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2012/06/18/pol-cp-refugee-health-cuts-doctors.html)

-          Proposed changes to refugee system (Bill C-31) may result in: (http://ccrweb.ca/en/protect-refugees-c31-statement; http://www.parl.gc.ca/LegisInfo/BillDetails.aspx?billId=5383493&Mode=1&View=7&Language=E)

-                  Increased difficulty integrating into Canadian society

-          Precarious living circumstances

-          perpetuates stigma and misunderstanding of refugees and new Canadians

-         

Health

-          Health care is provincially managed but federally funded. In 2012-2013 the federal government will provide $29 billion to the provinces through the Canada Health Transfer (http://www.fin.gc.ca/fedprov/cht-eng.asp).

Persons with a Disability

·         Employment is supported through the Opportunities Fund for People with Disabilities

·         Community participation is supported through the Enabling Accessibility Fund

·         Provincial programs provide individuals with disabilities with some financial assistance

Financial Stability and Independence

·         Social assistance is available to individuals and families and:

o   Is managed at both the provincial and federal levels

o   increases based on the number of children in the home

o   Includes tax benefits, child care benefits and income assistance

·         Persons with a Disability

o   Provincial assistance, grants, bonds and federal tax benefits exist for persons living with a disability as well as for families caring for a child or family member with a disability

·         Old Age Security Pension/Canada Pension Plan

o   Persons of 65 years or older have access to income assistance programs to support them

o   The 2012 budget increased the age at which a person can receive OASP

·         Although it appears that the Canadian government is protecting Canadian families, many of the families receiving the above types of assistance live in poverty.

                                              

The Effects of Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence on Canada's Children

Behaviours

• Anger and aggression
• Non-compliance with adults
• Destructive behaviour
• Conflict with the law (8-12) (Health Canada vaw impact on children)

Education:

• Poor educational outcomes (Berman, Hardesty, & Humphreys, 2004).
• Absenteeism
• Distracted when at school; preoccupied with thoughts of mother’s safety

Modelling

• Children may learn that:
• violence and threats serve to meet your needs/solve problems (Bergman et al)
• there are no ramifications to hurting others,
• anger causes violence therefore it should be suppressed (Cunningham & Baker, 2004)
• people whom you love, and who love you, can also hurt you
• people that you trust can hurt you

Intergenerational transmission of violence

• For boys, there is an increased risk of violent behaviours as adults
• increased likelihood of becoming an abusive husband and causing severe injuries (Health Canada vaw impact on children); one study found they were three time more likely to use physical abuse against an intimate partner (Strass et al)
• For girls, there is an increased risk that she will accept violence in her romantic relationships (13) (Health Canada vaw impact on children)

Gender:

• Exposure to VAW models negative messages about male and female roles; research suggests that men who hold stereotypical attitudes about gender roles are more likely to use violence against a female partner (Johnson & Dawson, 2011).
• Children may learn that:
•  women are weak, helpless, and not have the right to be treated with respect
• unequal relationships are normal
• men are in charge and can control women’s lives (Cunningham & Baker, 2004). 

Mental health issues:

• Elevated rates of: depression, anxiety, withdrawal, dissociation, posttraumatic stress, low self-esteem and other emotional problems (2,8-12) (Health Canada vaw impact on children)

(Geffner, Jaffe, & Sudermann, 2000).

• Increased risk of eating disorders

Attachment

• Victim’s emotional deprivation may lead to inappropriately meeting her needs for recognition, support, and love through her children, possibly resulting in insecure attachment of child (Stark, 2007)
• The child may no longer view the victim parent as offering security and protection, thus weakening their attachment to that parent (Geffner et al., 2000).

Sleeping

• Difficulty sleeping, (Berman et al., 2004).

Instability

• Unstable living environmentLiving in a shelter can protect while also exacerbating some of the risk factors, including mental health, stress, precarious living situation

Children's Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in Canada

• This type of violence has become so prevalent that it is now an independent category is Canada’s quadrennial study on child maltreatment.
• In approximately 40% of reported cases of IPV, children saw or heard incidents of VAW
• In approximately half of the incidents in which children saw or heard the incident, the woman was injured, and in half she feared that her life was in danger.
• Where exposure to IPV was the primary category* of substantiated child maltreatment
• 44% of cases were single incident cases, 56% involved multiple incidents
• emotional harm was identified in 26% (2008).
• Where more than one category of maltreatment was substantiated, two most frequently identified combinations were exposure to IPV and neglect, and exposure to IPV and emotional maltreatment (2008)

*This data reflects only those cases which were reported to a child welfare agency, and thus excludes cases in which authorities were not involved, or authorities did not refer to the child welfare agency. This likely underestimates the rates of children’s exposure to IPV.

Prevelance of Intimate Partner Violence in Canada

Prevalence of IPV/VAW in Canada*

• 6% reported physical and/or sexual abuse
• 17% reported emotional and/or financial abuse
• ~50% of victims reported more than one abusive incident; this was more common among females (57%) than males (40%)
• Female victims were about three times more likely than males(34% versus 10%) to report more severe forms of violence
• Female victims were more than twice as likely as males to report an injury as a result of IPV (42% versus 18%).
• Males and females have reported being victims of IPV at similar rates; noteworthy, this decontextualizes the gendered power differentials in Canada.
• The rate of spousal homicide against women was about three times higher than that of men.
• Tangential Abuse: in two studies, 36% and 44% of women reported that their abusive partners threatened to hurt the children or to report them for abuse (Stark, 2007).

*unless otherwise specified, data comes from the 2009 GSS, population survey, last 5 years, had current or former spouse